[Updated: Sun, Nov 27, 2022 - 14:04:29 ]
Generating features from text data is very different than dealing with continuous and categorical data. First, let’s remember the dataset we are working with.
readability <- read.csv(here('data/readability.csv'),header=TRUE)
# The first two observations
readability[1:2,c('excerpt','target')]%>%
kbl(format = 'html',
escape = FALSE) %>%
kable_paper(c("striped", "hover"),full_width = T) %>%
kable_styling(font_size = 14)
excerpt | target |
---|---|
When the young people returned to the ballroom, it presented a decidedly changed appearance. Instead of an interior scene, it was a winter landscape. The floor was covered with snow-white canvas, not laid on smoothly, but rumpled over bumps and hillocks, like a real snow field. The numerous palms and evergreens that had decorated the room, were powdered with flour and strewn with tufts of cotton, like snow. Also diamond dust had been lightly sprinkled on them, and glittering crystal icicles hung from the branches. At each end of the room, on the wall, hung a beautiful bear-skin rug. These rugs were for prizes, one for the girls and one for the boys. And this was the game. The girls were gathered at one end of the room and the boys at the other, and one end was called the North Pole, and the other the South Pole. Each player was given a small flag which they were to plant on reaching the Pole. This would have been an easy matter, but each traveller was obliged to wear snowshoes. | -0.3402591 |
All through dinner time, Mrs. Fayre was somewhat silent, her eyes resting on Dolly with a wistful, uncertain expression. She wanted to give the child the pleasure she craved, but she had hard work to bring herself to the point of overcoming her own objections. At last, however, when the meal was nearly over, she smiled at her little daughter, and said, “All right, Dolly, you may go.” “Oh, mother!” Dolly cried, overwhelmed with sudden delight. “Really? Oh, I am so glad! Are you sure you’re willing?” “I’ve persuaded myself to be willing, against my will,” returned Mrs. Fayre, whimsically. “I confess I just hate to have you go, but I can’t bear to deprive you of the pleasure trip. And, as you say, it would also keep Dotty at home, and so, altogether, I think I shall have to give in.” “Oh, you angel mother! You blessed lady! How good you are!” And Dolly flew around the table and gave her mother a hug that nearly suffocated her. | -0.3153723 |
The excerpt column includes plain text data, and the target column includes a corresponding measure of readability for each excerpt. A higher target value indicates a more difficult text to read. What features can we generate from the plain text to predict its readability?
In the following sections, we will briefly touch on the Transformer models and demonstrate how to derive numerical features to represent a text.
NLP is a field at the intersection of linguistics and computer science with the ultimate goal of developing algorithms and models to understand and use human language in a way we understand and use it. The goal is not only to understand individual words but also the context in which these words are being used.
The recent advancements in the field of NLP revolutionized the language models. These advanced language models take plain text, put it into smaller pieces (tokens), then use very complex neural network models to convert these tokens into a numerical vector representing the text.
Most recently, a group of scholars called these models as part of Foundation Models. Below shows a development timeline of the most popular language models.
Below is a brief list of some of these NLP models and some information, including links to original papers. These models are very expensive to train and use the enormous amounts of data available. For instance, Bert/Roberta was trained using the entire Wikipedia and a Book Corpus (a total of ~ 4.7 billion words), GPT-2 was trained using 8 million web pages, and GPT3 was trained on 45 TB of data from the internet and books.
Model | Developer | Year | # of parameters | Estimated Cost |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bert-Large | Google AI | 2018 | 336 M | $ 7K |
Roberta-Large | Facebook AI | 2019 | 335 M | ? |
GPT2-XL | Open AI | 2019 | 1.5 B | $ 50K |
T5 | Google AI | 2020 | 11 B | $ 1.3 M |
GPT3 | OpenAI | 2020 | 175 B | $ 4.6 M |
All these models except GPT3 are open source. They can be immediately utilized using open libraries (typically Python), and these models can be customized to implement specific tasks (e.g., question answering, sentiment analysis, translation, etc.). GPT3 is the most powerful developed so far, and it can only be accessed through a private API, https://beta.openai.com/.
You can explore some GPT3 applications on this website, https://gpt3demo.com/. Below are a few of them:
Artificial tweets (https://thoughts.sushant-kumar.com/word)
Creative writing (https://www.gwern.net/GPT-3)
Interview with (artificial) Einstein (https://maraoz.com/2021/03/14/einstein-gpt3/)
If you have time, this series of Youtube videos provide some background and accessible information about these models. In particular, Episode 2 will give a good idea about what these numerical embeddings represent. If you want to get in-depth coverage of speech and language processing from scratch, this freely available book provides a good amount of material. Finally, this free course by Hugging Face provides a nice an easy introduction to transformer models. While the course primarily utilizes Python, it is still useful to read through to get familiar with concepts.
In this class, we will only scratch the surface and focus on the
tools available to make these models accessible through R. In
particular, we will use reticulate
package and
sentence_transformers
module (a Python package) to connect
with HuggingFace’s
Transformers library and explore the word and sentence embeddings
derived from the NLP models.
You can consider Hugging Face like a CRAN of pre-trained AI/ML models, it includes a wide variety of language models. There are thousands of pre-trained models that can be imported and used within seconds at no charge to achieve tasks like text generation, text classification, translation, speech recognition, image classification, object detection, etc.
reticulate
package and
sentence_transformers
First, we will load the reticulate
package and
sentence_transformers
module. While we import the
sentence_transformers
module we will assign a name to save
as an object so we can utilize it moving forward.
require(reticulate)
st <- import('sentence_transformers')
Next, we will pick a pre-trained language model to play with. It can be any model listed in the previous section. You have to find the associate Huggingface page for that particular model and use the same tag used for that model. For instance, suppose we want to use the RoBERTa model. The associated Huggingface webpage for this model is https://huggingface.co/roberta-base.
Notice that the tag for this model is ‘roberta-base’. Therefore, we will use the same name to load this model. For other models, you can use the search bar at the top. When you run the code in the next chunk the first time, it will install all the relevant model files (https://huggingface.co/roberta-base/tree/main) to a local folder on your machine. The next time you run the same code, it will quickly load the model from the local folder since it is already installed on your computer.
model.name <- 'roberta-base'
roberta <- st$models$Transformer(model.name)
pooling_model <- st$models$Pooling(roberta$get_word_embedding_dimension())
model <- st$SentenceTransformer(modules = list(roberta,pooling_model))
One important thing to be aware of about these models is the maximum number of characters they can process. It can be found by using the following code. For instance, RoBERTa can handle a text sequence with a maximum number of 512 characters. If we submit any text with more than 512 characters, it will only process the first 512 characters.
model$get_max_seq_length()
[1] 512
Another essential characteristic is the length of the output vector when a language model returns numerical embeddings. The following code reveals that RoBERTa returns a vector with a length of 768.
model$get_sentence_embedding_dimension()
[1] 768
In short, RoBERTa can take any text sequence up to 512 characters as input and then return a numerical vector with a length of 768 that represent this text sequence. This process is also called encoding.
For instance, we can get the embeddings for a single word ‘sofa’. The following will return a vector with a length of 768.
model$encode('sofa')
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[5] 0.4442713559 -0.2135011852 0.0167765897 -0.0311041381
[9] 0.0107637532 -0.1096956134 -0.2183851302 -0.1140032262
[13] 0.1238908470 -0.0797361359 0.1692416519 0.0336829498
[17] -0.0600813031 0.0623767339 0.0907270387 -0.0224188231
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[73] 0.0670195296 0.0963044539 -0.0055563236 -0.0143450852
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[229] 0.0264194682 -0.0294446461 0.1118273884 0.1000626013
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[513] 0.0790089965 0.0042176861 -0.0153378677 -0.1155088916
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[521] 0.0687874034 -0.0167665780 0.0280568413 -0.1220358312
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[529] 0.1477197260 -0.0380651988 -0.0686690956 -0.1238215193
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[733] 0.0887767822 -0.0295703020 -0.0424162671 -0.0948930085
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[753] -0.1601956934 -0.0478142425 -0.0450621769 -0.0462121964
[757] 0.2260329872 -0.1113839298 0.0209654514 0.0178512931
[761] 0.0428405628 0.1008379236 0.0504300594 0.0481586978
[765] 0.2165928781 -0.1681894660 -0.0393629372 -0.0666962191
Similarly, we can get the vector of numerical embeddings for a whole sentence.
model$encode('I like to drink Turkish coffee')
[1] -0.01178756263 0.10278499871 0.01093375869 -0.04623499140
[5] -0.00487077981 -0.04498281330 0.08225313574 -0.03068084642
[9] 0.00254547270 -0.07485476881 0.00626886077 -0.16109354794
[13] 0.07325114310 -0.00854813121 0.04085500538 0.28260263801
[17] 0.11343766004 0.13471494615 0.07055664062 0.36907771230
[21] -0.02329965308 0.12997290492 -0.08797073364 0.00176735315
[25] -0.13596564531 0.05665922537 0.11902851611 -0.01500649936
[29] 0.13772100210 -0.00496985437 -0.08434423804 -0.07868374884
[33] 0.02161235362 -0.03984801471 0.04456693679 0.05849874020
[37] 0.11640743166 0.02286028862 -0.00947276782 0.00502380542
[41] 0.04630419612 -0.32184061408 -0.02034790069 0.01740729809
[45] 0.01355001330 -0.04638009891 -0.05697692558 -0.14055319130
[49] 0.07457129657 -0.01287342701 -0.01593326218 0.07576484978
[53] 0.02938880213 0.04194469377 -0.05589605868 0.03272417933
[57] 0.03844407946 0.05413730443 0.12071878463 -0.07491374761
[61] 0.01938630454 0.54147577286 -0.15505477786 0.05381580815
[65] 0.04042135552 -0.00642709574 -0.00746040652 -0.12155018747
[69] -0.02452480420 0.10893430561 0.03051396087 -0.08853682876
[73] 0.04928927124 -0.08943001181 0.01897253469 0.07131873071
[77] 0.06871882826 -4.13642501831 0.13351145387 0.07664902508
[81] 0.03651222214 -0.09673640132 0.89217787981 -0.04306836054
[85] 0.04194186255 -0.05514504015 -0.02103988640 0.17559264600
[89] 0.01227049716 -0.00386030739 0.04441806674 -0.03551847115
[93] -0.07538413256 0.11143504083 0.04939413816 0.03816314042
[97] 0.09854111820 -0.02303134464 -0.00179665210 -0.00085414201
[101] -0.11806513369 -0.02063305676 0.02362795174 0.09661674500
[105] 0.01085869595 -0.12519752979 0.10698405653 -0.03740838915
[109] -0.08884917200 0.13770172000 0.10585375130 -0.09237524122
[113] 0.14154621959 -0.00389125478 -0.05083238333 0.07898531109
[117] 0.04267026484 0.05936061218 -0.06123913825 0.06296721101
[121] 0.05586537346 0.03252293542 0.14736802876 0.07342395186
[125] -0.25260412693 -0.08185942471 0.04785029590 -0.03871662542
[129] -0.01667318121 0.04311851785 -0.04991150647 -0.60922294855
[133] -0.00484278006 -0.06470596045 -0.00291156583 -0.11511138827
[137] -0.01698307693 -0.03271684051 -0.05950184911 -0.12982320786
[141] 0.01724223420 0.03518041596 0.02934072725 0.04171930999
[145] 0.30440011621 0.02517579868 -0.07006555051 -0.23346969485
[149] 0.00844197161 0.05099269748 0.03252385557 -0.04751272500
[153] -0.07027619332 0.08984416723 -0.06273024529 0.14591774344
[157] 0.09863515198 0.25520563126 -0.07795181870 0.43738499284
[161] 0.12964035571 0.01454514638 0.01953442395 -0.02825888619
[165] 0.00075821672 0.00771219516 -0.01024915092 0.04318773746
[169] 0.07650490105 0.08267024904 -0.00568555202 0.03067611344
[173] -0.04012656957 0.14161375165 0.01266532484 -0.13634182513
[177] -0.03952530026 0.09026617557 0.00772870053 -0.01258897781
[181] 0.06947132200 0.05105271935 0.00032814220 0.00196462078
[185] -0.01595257409 0.11271636188 0.15407632291 0.05832265317
[189] 0.11283170432 0.04487172142 -0.04882197082 0.05088605359
[193] -0.02264021337 0.07404132932 0.07896973193 0.10499487817
[197] -0.06692550331 -0.03697898984 0.06937737763 0.04945894331
[201] 0.05113966018 -0.08194012195 -0.10721433163 -0.04897894710
[205] 0.15065754950 0.10129641742 0.02087124810 0.10874668509
[209] 0.04760009423 -0.06162553653 -0.09491002560 -0.12216342241
[213] -0.02830585092 0.03591910750 -0.04520691186 -0.16342914104
[217] 0.06836596876 0.04436348751 0.04822815955 0.41608574986
[221] 0.07999478281 0.04446204752 -0.09777959436 0.00191505952
[225] -0.08722338080 0.11013680696 0.14092494547 -0.07029317319
[229] 0.15053604543 -0.16089598835 -0.02733201906 -0.04974053055
[233] -0.10599211603 0.07982736826 0.09201110154 -0.40470686555
[237] 0.05906889960 -0.01318830065 0.01357291173 -0.02731262147
[241] -0.65026259422 0.08871906251 0.08232256770 0.07668064535
[245] 0.04042013362 0.02460350096 -0.00144912163 0.17354218662
[249] 0.14589069784 -0.04771002010 0.01597190090 0.08966311067
[253] 0.04908165336 -0.11419168115 -0.08502776921 -0.08974553645
[257] -0.12737628818 0.04935332388 -0.15694443882 -0.06124186516
[261] 0.03666267172 0.02004068159 0.04401797429 -0.15641340613
[265] -0.05760531500 0.07650154829 -0.03167368472 0.07931122184
[269] 0.00901504979 -0.06132012978 0.01697015762 -0.02927378938
[273] -0.04857507348 0.02371818013 0.03179942816 -0.04552056640
[277] 0.17627295852 -0.02516534552 -0.05752530321 -0.01505636424
[281] 0.08774642646 -0.02125256509 0.18481005728 0.08228832483
[285] 0.06763889641 0.01308839396 -0.13039453328 -0.03017592058
[289] -0.01873817667 0.08929710090 0.05834455416 -0.03174070269
[293] 0.01390640810 -0.03864267841 -0.09253222495 -0.01728121378
[297] 0.12410937250 -0.04100821540 0.04707189649 0.04714074731
[301] 0.10770967603 -0.00315346196 -0.10042775422 0.08935348690
[305] -0.01404160354 -0.04688004032 -0.07279075682 0.05749002844
[309] -0.06967109442 -0.05545315892 -0.02552834339 -0.14972683787
[313] 0.06309494376 0.15150888264 -0.00864394754 0.01057897694
[317] 0.00592292240 0.00970546529 0.08703348786 0.03069057688
[321] -0.03375400230 -0.06739930809 0.09072256833 0.07848568261
[325] 0.11284592748 -0.08407180011 0.07819942385 0.03995769098
[329] 0.07009632140 0.11188885570 -0.24580949545 0.90001469851
[333] 0.12089532614 -0.01227924973 -0.06359811872 0.03523534164
[337] 0.01611461677 0.08675729483 0.10483931005 0.01012298930
[341] 0.00031804154 -0.00818176940 -0.16627056897 0.00469068484
[345] 0.02130271308 0.07732348144 0.04926919565 -0.05670228973
[349] -0.04631502181 0.10687955469 -0.03332764655 0.01406783424
[353] 0.09957949817 -0.15667900443 -0.00317216013 0.01619793475
[357] 0.13785058260 -0.03695226461 0.01658136211 -0.06813907623
[361] 0.08336272836 0.16922046244 0.00247423816 -0.08443702757
[365] 0.05174981058 0.09740118682 0.26251202822 0.13505578041
[369] -0.04359325022 0.09619217366 0.03377174959 -0.00218817405
[373] -0.01017327979 -0.08413492888 -0.05180362985 -0.07273145020
[377] 0.05030424520 0.08751272410 0.16093406081 -0.03390208632
[381] -0.01043029781 -0.03548621386 -0.01699107513 0.01912876405
[385] -0.07973151654 0.04320683703 0.01989768445 -0.12756203115
[389] -0.03098621033 0.00650840718 -0.07768756151 0.10089147091
[393] -0.07954857498 -0.01790400781 0.01669675484 0.05395016819
[397] 0.03829964250 0.14281614125 0.20642946661 -0.05247383565
[401] 0.04683664814 0.10827600211 -0.06957665086 -0.07571008056
[405] -0.05944715440 -0.01344989147 -0.07810124010 -0.04226115346
[409] -0.15824672580 -0.03212283924 0.09794007242 0.09059050679
[413] 0.01046781149 0.00020543486 -0.06280449033 0.02410167083
[417] -0.05018439144 -0.06793823093 0.00573871192 -0.03653944656
[421] 0.02161061764 -0.01924452372 0.04822736979 0.02471604571
[425] 0.12235145271 0.04452153668 0.13469699025 0.01670137979
[429] -0.02470082045 -0.05284336954 -0.10143402964 0.00922968425
[433] 0.03362737596 -0.04423018172 -0.00413170224 -0.01949813962
[437] 0.00942119583 -0.20146682858 -0.05510338396 0.01366847288
[441] -0.04772661254 0.07698956877 0.06640637666 0.02397813834
[445] -0.14183472097 -0.04575728625 -0.15320336819 -0.00788022485
[449] 0.02135960758 -0.01345346309 0.10530500114 -0.01646697707
[453] -0.03888763115 -1.08305180073 -0.00083741685 0.11160721630
[457] 0.02770528942 -0.01054597273 -0.06605579704 0.04412012547
[461] 0.08192968369 0.04005576298 -0.05635560304 0.05495367944
[465] 0.01402659342 -0.15851949155 -0.03023152798 0.19572809339
[469] 0.01863588765 0.06902951002 -0.01266082004 0.02299657091
[473] -0.00470078411 -0.07729942352 0.01735690981 -0.00720282644
[477] 0.07002413273 0.09092012048 0.03493273631 0.06802241504
[481] -0.01505678706 0.02954206988 -0.01877148636 0.03480780497
[485] -0.10423323512 -0.07202734798 -0.01704173721 0.01502756495
[489] 0.04665532708 -0.06358810514 -0.01287578978 -0.05168087035
[493] -0.01075313706 -0.00320516946 0.19674751163 0.04860872403
[497] -0.41238608956 0.01066310983 0.32675898075 -0.06341576576
[501] 0.02628972009 0.01365064457 0.07002934068 -0.04391351342
[505] 0.07600034028 0.14016662538 -0.03555902466 -0.04067653418
[509] 0.09995693713 0.03394508362 0.05223489180 -0.25556266308
[513] 0.00745464209 -0.01409167238 0.02850508317 0.12841719389
[517] 0.02112706937 0.09976664931 0.02270895615 -0.25903543830
[521] -0.03593028709 0.07121115178 -0.01665394753 -0.01663682610
[525] -0.05931027979 -0.06853275001 0.06115171313 0.03058695793
[529] 0.13712780178 -0.09377148747 -0.06594183296 -0.06134198606
[533] 0.07561255246 -0.00017064391 -0.16877844930 0.04635048658
[537] 0.04027160257 0.13218209147 -0.03819207847 0.07642486691
[541] -0.02910984680 0.12374015898 0.05625952035 0.02131085657
[545] 0.18835608661 0.04942709580 0.12962301075 0.00504925707
[549] 0.04721711576 -0.08219789714 -0.04640511796 -0.12387338281
[553] -0.04727662727 0.01413739100 0.05141320080 -0.04458754510
[557] 0.03157661483 0.12638874352 -0.00524097309 0.08917185664
[561] 0.01452164445 -0.35762175918 -0.01392915286 0.04477771372
[565] -0.03660982102 0.01903883368 0.09178100526 0.05326319113
[569] -0.01747901738 -0.05025598407 -0.01110013016 -0.05249111727
[573] -0.03659915924 0.01587794907 -0.01250017527 0.02968469635
[577] 0.10908561200 0.14437158406 -0.14502903819 0.05590865389
[581] 0.07278285921 -0.04392333329 0.01164120249 0.17424646020
[585] 0.05410258844 0.07681672275 0.07232151926 -0.06711075455
[589] 10.07463550568 -0.01011656411 0.01704577543 0.10929690301
[593] 0.06012175232 0.05607127026 0.02889964171 -0.04166502133
[597] -0.00205596257 0.09235295653 -0.04838714749 0.05196825787
[601] -0.02444161847 0.01730557531 0.01771085337 0.01625886187
[605] -0.28358867764 0.08354127407 0.10569129139 0.01898630336
[609] 0.12275204062 0.03809059784 0.03666390106 0.12680123746
[613] -0.15032386780 0.21821279824 0.18539962173 0.05414790660
[617] -0.00749016646 0.08893932402 0.07488542795 0.05545224249
[621] 0.02915835194 0.00856588595 0.13660992682 0.15385082364
[625] -0.06263649464 0.08125825971 -0.00002325047 0.23185446858
[629] 0.03506195918 -0.09679391980 0.01323065255 0.00519346818
[633] 0.03788876534 0.05919850618 0.09609610587 0.05751947314
[637] 0.03957244754 0.01264949236 0.01535425242 -0.06162425131
[641] 0.02908030897 0.14106319845 -0.01901833341 0.11276496202
[645] -0.03936489671 0.00099390326 -0.00366679300 -0.01762092672
[649] -0.00928323530 0.07514175028 0.06850954145 -0.02549809590
[653] 0.08762409538 0.08077415079 0.06784472615 0.08132497966
[657] -0.01183548942 -0.00072143879 0.02146123536 0.11198233068
[661] -0.07392378896 0.03819230571 0.01816147566 -0.04830361903
[665] -0.19510628283 -0.04690299183 -0.07854089141 -0.05419109017
[669] 0.02331295051 -0.00938901678 0.07046185434 0.09199322015
[673] 0.21238797903 0.02792359702 0.11243189871 0.02591974288
[677] -0.00615646644 0.03513993695 0.14261384308 0.07364098728
[681] 0.10220479965 0.01609489322 0.02398936078 -0.02556908131
[685] 0.00179124018 -0.02348809317 0.08397649974 -0.08257681876
[689] -0.04396900907 0.04995858297 -0.05033384636 0.05998511612
[693] 0.11537389457 -0.01593917795 -0.06055822968 -0.16152115166
[697] -0.01114141382 0.02739814483 -0.01101099607 -0.04443185404
[701] -0.00682633510 0.04704710469 -0.02496541105 -0.08497899026
[705] -0.06010052189 0.06924650073 -0.03039424494 0.07574173063
[709] -0.00660725730 0.03008056991 -0.02600940131 0.03524253145
[713] 0.03677238151 -0.05480838194 0.04589191079 -0.05034032464
[717] -0.02219916880 0.00385648594 0.05007091165 0.08368641138
[721] 0.05869836733 -0.04817376286 0.00500276731 0.01969382726
[725] 0.02232522331 -0.00405918434 -0.03342300653 -0.05019075796
[729] -0.05556573719 -0.13569174707 0.05072744191 -0.48665577173
[733] 0.04441469908 0.02524072118 -0.14115256071 0.17032654583
[737] 0.07977185398 -0.06868468225 -0.03465748578 -0.05387150124
[741] -0.05741538852 -0.02516146377 0.15718893707 0.01091605332
[745] -0.04058590904 -0.01980805956 0.02870250493 -0.01669016480
[749] -0.03890883923 -0.60106384754 0.03322814405 0.02858895808
[753] 0.18336550891 0.12473639101 0.01609408110 0.08886212856
[757] 0.07076863199 0.00996986963 -0.06644231826 0.00503187347
[761] -0.02441483364 -0.03701018542 0.04051119834 0.03330204263
[765] 0.10524793714 0.11114552617 0.07725711912 -0.14208619297
The input can be many sentences. For instance, if I submit a vector of three sentences as an input, the model returns a 3 x 768 matrix containng sentence embeddings. Each row contains the embeddings for a sentence.
my.sentences <- c('The weather today is great.',
'I live in Eugene.',
'I am a graduate student.')
embeddings <- model$encode(my.sentences)
dim(embeddings)
[1] 3 768
head(embeddings)
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1,] 0.017466936 0.18936765 0.05655781 -0.10007770 0.3477369
[2,] -0.116279386 0.15185139 0.02549255 -0.18140650 0.3024701
[3,] 0.004130477 0.09689271 -0.02288255 0.01698708 0.1297401
[,6] [,7] [,8] [,9] [,10]
[1,] 0.161116362 0.01379415 -0.06983393 0.21350072 -0.086530611
[2,] 0.007331764 0.03502100 0.09465420 -0.02342363 0.003951203
[3,] 0.100442544 -0.03860680 0.05823556 -0.10520023 -0.094153374
[,11] [,12] [,13] [,14] [,15]
[1,] -0.03210545 0.18931536 -0.082832702 -0.04288674 -0.05687425
[2,] -0.06632143 -0.14414917 -0.007048744 -0.07298838 0.11057709
[3,] -0.13373426 -0.02797971 -0.043431252 0.06593540 0.06813642
[,16] [,17] [,18] [,19] [,20]
[1,] -0.1995602 0.12531294 -0.25097796 -0.007122722 0.1272842
[2,] 0.1434624 0.02711638 0.06095798 0.015504715 0.3171880
[3,] 0.1352124 0.05530372 -0.05192044 0.129772440 0.1445196
[,21] [,22] [,23] [,24] [,25]
[1,] -0.02212711 0.02939240 -0.06768320 -0.031360045 -0.02374818
[2,] -0.11055427 0.17259933 0.06908871 0.007150877 -0.09578121
[3,] -0.19155622 0.08215951 -0.04485236 0.025491279 -0.07901977
[,26] [,27] [,28] [,29] [,30]
[1,] -0.01850537 -0.073677890 0.08197053 0.04476932 -0.01092185
[2,] 0.11460673 0.007118554 0.06077866 0.07339842 0.07566937
[3,] 0.14188063 -0.059332389 -0.07300105 0.02767119 0.05440608
[,31] [,32] [,33] [,34] [,35]
[1,] 0.0516919 -0.12200159 0.06565627 0.08309685 -0.0631547
[2,] -0.1437625 -0.07774637 0.12881884 0.03798771 -0.2033215
[3,] -0.1472241 -0.08245133 0.04026355 0.04781771 -0.1529378
[,36] [,37] [,38] [,39] [,40]
[1,] 0.00124214 0.21495906 0.02378797 0.41673407 0.10881428
[2,] 0.03539575 0.02797152 0.02694622 0.18206938 -0.00243298
[3,] 0.16710928 0.04931019 0.07693321 0.03029568 -0.03445346
[,41] [,42] [,43] [,44] [,45]
[1,] -0.02317035 -0.04610297 -0.07775073 0.09374794 0.01631867
[2,] 0.18405415 -0.09677307 0.02205182 -0.05291918 -0.12745722
[3,] 0.04713881 -0.10469180 0.01276998 -0.11525831 -0.12307585
[,46] [,47] [,48] [,49] [,50]
[1,] -0.08893959 -0.066087134 -0.033896975 0.03748417 -0.09860551
[2,] -0.05699166 0.026511583 0.005998232 0.04043084 0.09988649
[3,] -0.02619796 0.006607132 0.128890276 0.04518945 -0.02991036
[,51] [,52] [,53] [,54] [,55]
[1,] 0.01296319 -0.003461072 -0.02627736 0.01285952 -0.06320502
[2,] -0.03472668 0.126700595 0.05529476 0.04296899 0.01611242
[3,] 0.02033573 0.302788228 -0.01722694 0.13887501 -0.06220450
[,56] [,57] [,58] [,59] [,60]
[1,] 0.04111816 0.12291817 0.27477175 0.09285492 -0.05965450
[2,] 0.17848778 0.10158963 0.10257996 0.07757163 0.03783483
[3,] 0.08246204 0.02561423 -0.01797309 -0.01141094 -0.06575820
[,61] [,62] [,63] [,64] [,65]
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[1,] 0.051343724 0.017095907 0.08447219 0.01810732 0.03884545
[2,] 0.003084684 0.002061225 -0.04824588 -0.06848171 0.02627856
[3,] 0.019820197 -0.030093983 -0.02302835 -0.07308745 0.01341599
[,706] [,707] [,708] [,709] [,710]
[1,] 0.02292803 -0.02241533 -0.005699741 -0.14785856 0.06368943
[2,] 0.02831715 -0.02251743 0.113158464 -0.09536365 0.12465273
[3,] -0.02921605 -0.03969850 0.140876904 -0.07692195 0.03233643
[,711] [,712] [,713] [,714] [,715]
[1,] -0.03690190 0.093571730 -0.004948105 0.04304661 -0.01409842
[2,] -0.11779904 0.008528029 0.011699425 -0.04191633 0.13354866
[3,] -0.06761794 0.038781248 -0.031239903 -0.03373789 0.05055318
[,716] [,717] [,718] [,719] [,720]
[1,] -0.044394851 -0.01228573 0.004501287 0.03997793 0.11182661
[2,] -0.005906425 -0.07271305 0.073141493 -0.12115751 0.06879991
[3,] -0.086893030 -0.07782221 0.092925116 -0.09501198 0.03865187
[,721] [,722] [,723] [,724] [,725]
[1,] 0.16200098 -0.1963276 0.07506953 0.108284950 0.06242521
[2,] 0.07843442 -0.0272484 0.09158851 -0.045756642 -0.03038417
[3,] -0.16206633 -0.0492104 0.11310261 -0.001868449 -0.05736248
[,726] [,727] [,728] [,729] [,730]
[1,] 0.06534697 0.02324181 0.010514254 0.05806167 -0.002928009
[2,] 0.04052048 -0.23091494 -0.006549641 -0.03614023 -0.163491592
[3,] 0.04237001 -0.14198439 0.101073012 0.03866592 -0.154501140
[,731] [,732] [,733] [,734] [,735]
[1,] -0.07826689 -0.4306147 0.034221351 -0.06769373 0.023430072
[2,] 0.01333705 -0.4634736 0.003700569 -0.04821631 0.003874643
[3,] 0.07550879 -0.5461201 -0.050262697 -0.24380949 -0.072438218
[,736] [,737] [,738] [,739] [,740]
[1,] -0.1128417 -0.01578417 -0.099718347 -0.0455011204 -0.10483529
[2,] 0.2115270 0.04394335 0.007121652 0.0004530831 -0.08130268
[3,] 0.1422799 0.06445334 0.084635690 0.0257632788 -0.05460403
[,741] [,742] [,743] [,744] [,745]
[1,] 0.14446807 0.03796916 0.06176548 -0.02199821 0.007535934
[2,] 0.13209458 -0.11759082 0.11235521 0.03373785 -0.042034440
[3,] 0.09626281 -0.29080799 0.11512416 0.07427175 -0.164961562
[,746] [,747] [,748] [,749] [,750]
[1,] 0.1538259 -0.02231905 0.08385108 -0.09496891 -0.3132910
[2,] 0.1086871 0.02552897 -0.07375989 -0.10328012 -0.2329280
[3,] 0.1080883 0.02716528 -0.08429061 0.13082039 -0.1498961
[,751] [,752] [,753] [,754] [,755]
[1,] 0.13544297 -0.09229933 0.006370207 0.10247675 -0.01745539
[2,] 0.07169295 -0.11198869 0.277260184 0.07255528 0.01768901
[3,] 0.09499805 -0.12241976 0.367802501 0.06684625 0.10543489
[,756] [,757] [,758] [,759] [,760]
[1,] 0.05288321 0.09733097 0.06987759 -0.19151534 0.06136052
[2,] 0.02264082 -0.05838012 -0.06376933 -0.10843939 0.06910763
[3,] 0.22303495 -0.04375997 -0.15094276 -0.06138091 0.03490181
[,761] [,762] [,763] [,764] [,765]
[1,] -0.03410539 -0.01715597 0.08264564 0.16676839 0.1246100
[2,] -0.11565023 -0.06192952 0.02285620 0.02905226 0.3959301
[3,] 0.04694730 -0.07533912 -0.08235338 0.10327009 0.2405042
[,766] [,767] [,768]
[1,] 0.1230820 -0.01121444 0.03752019
[2,] 0.1823843 0.05410477 -0.13935684
[3,] 0.1092856 0.06907135 -0.12155339
In summary, NLP models may provide meaningful contextual numerical representations of words or sentences. These numerical representations can be used as input features for predictive models to predict a particular outcome. In our case, we can generate the embeddings for each reading passage. In the coming weeks, we will use them to predict the target score using various prediction algorithms.
First, we will check the length of the reading excerpts in the dataset.
Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max.
669.0 886.0 972.0 972.6 1059.0 1343.0
The number of characters ranges from 669 to 1343. In this case, I want to use a model that can handle long texts. For instance, RoBERTa would ignore any text after the first 512 characters in a reading excerpt, and we may lose some vital information regarding the outcome.
An alternative model to process longer texts is the Longformer model. The Hugging Face page for this model is https://huggingface.co/allenai/longformer-base-4096.
Let’s load this model as we did for RoBERTa.
model.name <- 'allenai/longformer-base-4096'
longformer <- st$models$Transformer(model.name)
pooling_model <- st$models$Pooling(longformer$get_word_embedding_dimension())
LFmodel <- st$SentenceTransformer(modules = list(longformer,pooling_model))
This model can handle texts up to 4096 characters, and returns a vector of length 768.
LFmodel$get_max_seq_length()
[1] 4096
LFmodel$get_sentence_embedding_dimension()
[1] 768
Now, we can submit the reading excerpts from our dataset all at once, and get the sentence embeddings for each one. Since our dataset has 2834 observations, this should return a matrix with 2834 rows and 768 columns.
read.embeddings <- LFmodel$encode(readability$excerpt,
show_progress_bar = TRUE)
# Check the embedding matrix
dim(read.embeddings)
[1] 2834 768
head(read.embeddings)
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1,] 0.06878642 0.02737294 0.0353682041 -0.17769572 0.17525391
[2,] 0.06200736 0.18268286 0.0024652195 -0.10744876 0.51925117
[3,] 0.02648670 0.09453232 0.0296205040 -0.06081667 0.25797406
[4,] 0.04218233 0.03943034 -0.0004737412 -0.22149815 0.16781905
[5,] 0.01741268 0.11062079 0.0012940745 -0.30953035 0.27908468
[6,] 0.03088607 -0.01201622 0.1024196073 -0.04266621 0.08677045
[,6] [,7] [,8] [,9] [,10]
[1,] -0.062003829 -0.009241561 0.18663073 -0.08267820 0.050396595
[2,] -0.009631317 0.021055585 0.10391098 -0.12528235 0.120555066
[3,] -0.026006516 0.010462754 0.07656582 -0.05405279 0.043316741
[4,] -0.130812421 -0.001381062 0.17187740 0.02726705 0.100796096
[5,] 0.201777592 -0.169042930 0.17893136 0.07310306 -0.053442664
[6,] -0.099492773 -0.007720584 -0.03680542 -0.08005710 -0.002916175
[,11] [,12] [,13] [,14] [,15]
[1,] -0.08924759 -0.12584847 0.07532627 -0.09043550 0.16977578
[2,] -0.12325408 -0.03490974 0.05919705 -0.07151967 0.06679756
[3,] -0.12445029 0.01071901 0.05318572 0.01152111 0.06358113
[4,] -0.01702231 -0.05677414 0.08501364 0.08951008 0.02121747
[5,] -0.08641744 -0.05077145 0.16863522 0.06391545 0.09241463
[6,] -0.10258079 -0.08562840 0.05569165 0.10128744 0.10752373
[,16] [,17] [,18] [,19] [,20]
[1,] 0.06627524 0.1254534 0.149795040 -0.09539226 -0.05386250
[2,] 0.06315146 0.1181628 -0.172043473 -0.10171498 0.08964073
[3,] 0.08248881 0.1091467 -0.076039344 -0.12442163 0.13084817
[4,] 0.21985857 0.2758147 0.066664048 -0.01095178 0.11738628
[5,] 0.06473929 0.1145013 0.026287500 -0.16021247 -0.03594755
[6,] 0.03598172 0.3445779 0.008862211 -0.03162296 0.06223473
[,21] [,22] [,23] [,24] [,25]
[1,] 0.019800426 0.05689066 -0.066817492 -0.01374022 -0.0005434537
[2,] -0.033529568 0.09369566 0.005841169 -0.12309865 -0.0396644436
[3,] -0.003348924 0.08551493 0.096154064 -0.04318059 -0.0134544317
[4,] 0.047499601 0.01420696 -0.059058707 -0.06542822 0.0618643127
[5,] 0.011399466 0.15386474 -0.157574072 0.12298665 -0.0167587493
[6,] 0.068682052 0.07682541 0.009790933 -0.09392697 0.0859657153
[,26] [,27] [,28] [,29] [,30]
[1,] -0.0398280062 0.06324669 0.1239742 0.05714065 -0.0784037
[2,] 0.0007338378 0.16816032 0.1769400 0.14561471 -0.1236172
[3,] 0.0233391654 0.09676986 0.1174871 0.16839454 -0.1228397
[4,] 0.0026793315 0.05301249 0.1669814 0.03192727 -0.2018328
[5,] 0.0843952000 0.24310870 0.2146871 0.04003200 -0.1260741
[6,] -0.0813994482 0.17552009 0.1065100 -0.05466254 -0.1454486
[,31] [,32] [,33] [,34] [,35]
[1,] -0.05841080 0.009110089 0.078652218 0.10221330 -0.10459986
[2,] -0.04242602 0.069912344 0.057975896 0.03614431 -0.18198293
[3,] -0.05578281 0.075226575 0.023002410 0.04269278 -0.05390055
[4,] -0.00404502 -0.018618550 0.001835824 0.06220116 -0.03155796
[5,] -0.20792694 -0.103156604 -0.026916955 0.07625656 0.05396373
[6,] -0.07710957 0.064506762 0.057588067 0.05781943 0.01271113
[,36] [,37] [,38] [,39] [,40]
[1,] 0.02391223 0.110306241 0.043328114 0.4521784 0.03735125
[2,] 0.04250664 -0.009082338 0.007062219 0.4343244 0.06531474
[3,] 0.01181644 0.005166513 0.011582398 0.3327737 0.09386559
[4,] -0.05737976 0.074416302 0.015505768 0.5607200 -0.03983847
[5,] -0.01515435 0.076285161 0.131026924 0.4974277 0.03435208
[6,] -0.01635659 0.006289245 0.023226904 0.3060058 0.05415952
[,41] [,42] [,43] [,44] [,45]
[1,] 0.01160207 -0.1441056 -0.06634481 0.013188138 -0.03034872
[2,] -0.09629171 -0.2475861 -0.06511805 0.029367110 -0.02183991
[3,] -0.08046697 -0.1241342 -0.07358038 0.041240882 -0.01687782
[4,] 0.02450111 -0.1278276 -0.04889721 -0.058667518 -0.04264880
[5,] -0.04384707 -0.1287246 -0.06949089 0.075815417 -0.04147740
[6,] -0.03843844 -0.2790852 -0.07422113 0.003265372 0.01405668
[,46] [,47] [,48] [,49] [,50]
[1,] 0.05563493 -0.12030786 0.17755996 -0.0009431239 0.02273739
[2,] -0.00349074 -0.25071853 0.11311000 0.0546880662 0.04223915
[3,] -0.03969015 -0.16227439 0.17778057 0.0135517670 -0.02265750
[4,] 0.01296046 -0.01586921 0.20198743 -0.0287195258 -0.02992338
[5,] 0.10140187 -0.21261519 -0.04230785 -0.0213186536 0.01532555
[6,] 0.05705843 -0.21435523 0.14221516 0.0081882812 0.06091512
[,51] [,52] [,53] [,54] [,55]
[1,] -0.055851076 0.045075454 0.0457919426 0.01860519 -0.04628744
[2,] 0.028229486 0.145248696 0.0022057290 0.02396804 -0.08741326
[3,] 0.013225293 0.138259456 0.0169651713 0.01428844 -0.09812585
[4,] 0.009362207 0.009168806 -0.0189137459 -0.07263523 -0.05096374
[5,] -0.054614712 0.016204031 0.0061255246 0.01164986 -0.12076854
[6,] -0.046974260 0.004813397 0.0006372099 -0.02829496 -0.07158546
[,56] [,57] [,58] [,59] [,60]
[1,] 0.11621416 0.19029057 -0.18323594 0.15596573 -0.16865835
[2,] 0.15194535 0.07216028 0.19703192 0.03920581 -0.05542378
[3,] 0.05171975 0.07081036 0.16018121 0.07730552 -0.12761781
[4,] 0.06082216 0.14776467 0.06345271 0.16414967 -0.11517348
[5,] 0.06762488 0.09770873 -0.06482673 0.05881982 -0.18440580
[6,] 0.18844305 0.15123229 0.03043088 0.07150017 -0.06692398
[,61] [,62] [,63] [,64] [,65]
[1,] -0.01584120 -0.30836877 -0.08627234 0.05220238 -0.073660202
[2,] 0.09358547 -0.12590311 -0.01988886 0.15112427 -0.057417575
[3,] 0.00353132 -0.02997617 -0.06488663 0.10850967 0.000176775
[4,] 0.07951759 0.01796308 -0.08190001 0.09804805 -0.032816716
[5,] 0.01957706 0.39047232 -0.16133040 0.22548598 -0.071758203
[6,] 0.05250159 -0.21743841 -0.03778880 0.11767841 -0.063424781
[,66] [,67] [,68] [,69] [,70]
[1,] -0.09121702 0.06205500 -0.00664423 0.044466395 0.10872079
[2,] -0.06620028 0.02835573 -0.07774094 0.025311865 0.10251271
[3,] -0.08376483 0.08219867 -0.15987641 0.002131245 0.04943869
[4,] -0.10609961 0.01014323 -0.20266037 0.042984761 0.04320575
[5,] -0.12487545 0.05126919 -0.21430783 -0.032729916 -0.02177408
[6,] -0.12166830 0.08317646 -0.05596460 0.031021968 0.12048520
[,71] [,72] [,73] [,74] [,75]
[1,] 0.05152616 -0.1286170 0.07124258 -0.13667069 0.0436399579
[2,] 0.11669674 -0.1081983 0.02155845 0.05324470 0.0256285314
[3,] 0.07750056 -0.1166162 0.03136687 0.08986921 -0.0002351542
[4,] 0.17135516 -0.1582801 0.02830557 -0.13921450 0.0152892377
[5,] 0.02453504 -0.2918184 0.01494434 -0.25516808 0.1191712022
[6,] 0.08055479 -0.1039434 0.03267877 0.08227553 -0.0112367412
[,76] [,77] [,78] [,79] [,80]
[1,] 0.09222718 -0.02197541 -5.946264 0.14185232 -0.002517788
[2,] 0.02680033 0.01777905 -5.769702 0.13710310 -0.039606657
[3,] 0.12901822 -0.04005376 -5.613939 0.19400115 -0.007314286
[4,] -0.03612557 0.07990569 -5.738643 0.11591304 -0.004460549
[5,] 0.00174457 -0.01451725 -6.881078 -0.05151975 -0.024183193
[6,] 0.03638640 -0.05377566 -6.141560 0.12704419 -0.014760924
[,81] [,82] [,83] [,84] [,85]
[1,] 0.041527856 0.09985719 1.121162 0.03830210 -0.063193858
[2,] -0.011150517 0.01501055 1.177877 0.01126669 -0.113686204
[3,] -0.007199855 0.02349413 1.150699 0.02726431 -0.095392525
[4,] 0.067316115 0.04642459 0.721678 -0.19776239 0.007204633
[5,] 0.026808724 0.08641411 1.250171 0.10575949 -0.082243785
[6,] -0.017409449 0.05579916 1.169361 0.05016227 -0.159839779
[,86] [,87] [,88] [,89] [,90]
[1,] -0.26729175 0.07502843 0.13967815 -0.02483355 0.007648359
[2,] -0.03492378 0.01044415 -0.01767602 0.02817056 -0.012143429
[3,] -0.19305614 0.04591532 0.11847871 0.06890325 0.066408977
[4,] -0.24397978 0.12207813 -0.01864471 -0.09496449 0.026372869
[5,] -0.08974808 0.03191085 0.03928379 0.08986512 0.036878455
[6,] -0.11673717 0.01388938 0.02112357 -0.02177202 0.040249281
[,91] [,92] [,93] [,94] [,95]
[1,] 0.085554458 0.07065610 -0.02443473 0.1472436 0.053917125
[2,] 0.005007802 0.07478565 0.01366426 0.1178765 0.090566173
[3,] -0.082261726 0.09630763 0.06820065 0.1347773 -0.003685075
[4,] 0.048539050 0.10452553 -0.03157165 0.1828313 0.032530654
[5,] -0.062374547 0.08127025 -0.05123742 0.3114559 0.083208121
[6,] 0.050125770 0.05533622 0.02127386 0.1706575 0.015914422
[,96] [,97] [,98] [,99] [,100]
[1,] 0.20212734 -0.116203837 0.23486662 -0.02284844 -0.04338972
[2,] 0.06854723 -0.059805643 0.74454349 0.03837124 0.01315809
[3,] 0.16587275 -0.040862981 0.60500520 0.01118777 -0.08465243
[4,] 0.21602593 -0.042178612 -0.03365597 -0.01383332 0.02952261
[5,] 0.10416410 -0.110708982 0.45391500 0.07056663 -0.02640560
[6,] 0.05282875 -0.001121965 0.56108010 0.01365058 -0.03908147
[,101] [,102] [,103] [,104] [,105]
[1,] 0.23872551 0.020933937 -0.2689151 0.15147276 -0.07147629
[2,] 0.15307951 -0.001722996 -0.2714304 0.03367482 -0.06458593
[3,] -0.04544293 -0.019447301 -0.1242545 0.19996431 -0.08332866
[4,] 0.09374914 -0.014098025 -0.2161348 0.16988960 -0.01689096
[5,] 0.46665555 0.075723723 -0.0992410 0.27997312 -0.11320364
[6,] 0.11137514 0.028680129 -0.2897870 0.04343583 -0.02774085
[,106] [,107] [,108] [,109] [,110]
[1,] -0.10091496 0.007719000 0.14613576 -0.06393286 0.08753217
[2,] -0.09945138 -0.130645871 -0.04965333 -0.03176723 0.06711566
[3,] -0.06551234 -0.116697073 0.05235539 -0.05145445 0.02444218
[4,] -0.17506407 0.036558561 0.01593233 -0.06472807 0.13053261
[5,] -0.06535351 -0.009498350 0.08395107 -0.05001440 0.04134391
[6,] -0.14649561 -0.008850493 0.06866036 -0.06751941 0.05398743
[,111] [,112] [,113] [,114] [,115]
[1,] 0.05948964 0.19408694 0.125716850 0.01159422 -0.07214574
[2,] 0.16257027 -0.05577020 0.044497672 -0.01349812 -0.07794671
[3,] 0.12493593 0.12674727 0.039884962 -0.02161937 -0.06567856
[4,] 0.02918692 0.12518449 0.006082227 0.06100188 -0.03282348
[5,] 0.09491364 -0.09426759 0.193379387 0.08677589 -0.13170332
[6,] 0.08426497 0.24839157 0.110648654 0.05496157 -0.13149224
[,116] [,117] [,118] [,119] [,120]
[1,] -0.04729865 -0.01458118 0.007416536 0.015140262 -0.01364085
[2,] 0.09857436 0.05374681 -0.029883321 -0.006696742 0.11462778
[3,] 0.08839864 -0.01325786 -0.036843956 0.028005935 -0.02517148
[4,] -0.03490236 0.01637201 -0.026882786 0.002716305 -0.02008895
[5,] 0.01232459 -0.03626100 0.051883530 -0.022906721 -0.08221104
[6,] -0.06458402 -0.02047255 -0.006263990 0.064767666 -0.14237389
[,121] [,122] [,123] [,124] [,125]
[1,] -0.029898381 0.13351487 0.03838781 0.12505446 0.277584553
[2,] 0.042145960 0.02854462 -0.03316170 -0.11165556 0.011946644
[3,] 0.052602947 0.06012842 -0.02576030 0.04977613 0.038049541
[4,] -0.032401364 0.11898023 0.11506625 0.04655128 0.011379799
[5,] 0.003823568 0.10826161 0.10774323 0.18962641 0.001085924
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[4,] 0.051165286 0.05130168 -0.16208030 -0.12310728 -0.090935059
[5,] -0.124562979 0.13982485 -0.18622497 -0.12187486 -0.046656270
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[2,] -0.04395547 0.2787576 0.1744189 -0.01972667 0.1150709465
[3,] -0.01668818 0.1851185 0.1324145 0.05224041 -0.0654691830
[4,] 0.02574161 0.1451475 0.1177684 0.06272639 -0.0085238395
[5,] 0.03204844 0.1277810 0.1642708 -0.14526126 0.0274618156
[6,] -0.07035222 0.1358655 0.1458258 -0.19299366 0.0009176398
[,767] [,768]
[1,] 0.067714356 -0.02958016
[2,] -0.040427078 0.03495659
[3,] 0.001104798 0.03656437
[4,] 0.010757907 -0.03644707
[5,] 0.004185256 0.02862171
[6,] -0.015431712 0.02789298
It took about 51 minutes on my computer. So, you may want to export these embeddings as an external file to save time. It is not a good idea to run this repeatedly every time we need these embeddings. So, you run it first and then export this embedding matrix as a .csv file. Whenever we need this matrix, we can just read them into our R environment instead of re-doing this analysis. Below, I am appending the target outcome to the embedding matrix, and then exporting them all as a .csv file.
read.embeddings <- as.data.frame(read.embeddings)
read.embeddings$target <- readability$target
write.csv(read.embeddings,
here('data/readability_features.csv'),
row.names = FALSE)
Note that it takes significantly less time to compute sentence embeddings if you have access to computational resources with GPU. For instance, if you run the same analysis above on a Kaggle notebook with GPU turned on, it only takes 70 seconds. So, it is important to use GPU resources when using these models if you have access. You can check the associated Kaggle notebook for the analysis in this post.
https://www.kaggle.com/code/uocoeeds/lecture-2b-data-preprocessing-ii
Text and figures are licensed under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0. The figures that have been reused from other sources don't fall under this license and can be recognized by a note in their caption: "Figure from ...".